Introduction:
Portrait of Michelangelo by Marcello Venusti, 1535
Michelangelo Buonarroti consistently claimed that he was neither a painter nor an architect. Nevertheless, he is remembered for his skill in many disparate art styles, from his statue David to the frescoes on the vault of the Sistine Chapel to his dome for St. Peter’s Basilica. In 1536, Pope Paul III Farnese commissioned Michelangelo to design a pedestal for the statue of Marcus Aurelius that the pope wished to move to the Capitoline Hill. Although Michelangelo initially opposed the move, he completed the pedestal and subsequently redesigned the entire square – the Campidoglio – around it in the first comprehensive creation of a public space in the Renaissance. Unfortunately, Michelangelo died before it was constructed, and a series of architects (most notably Giacomo Della Porta) made minor changes over the following century of construction. Nevertheless, the resulting piazza is one of Michelangelo’s last and most impressive architectural achievements.
The Capitoline Hill, the smallest of Rome’s seven hills, is the historic seat of Roman civic power. Romulus was said to have welcomed refugees and exiles here at the time of the city’s founding. It was the center of the Roman state cult of Jupiter Optimus Maximus: the temple to Jupiter stood on the hill from the sixth century B.C. Roman triumphs celebrating the victories of noted generals and emperors ended there with offerings and vows to the gods. During the 12th century Roman revolts against the papacy, the Senators constructed a palace, the Palazzo Senatorio, on the Hill to establish secular governmental power, covering the ruins of the ancient Roman record-keeping center, the Tabularium. The Palazzo dei Conservatori, containing offices for Rome’s elected magistrates, was constructed in the early 15th century. However, by 1536, the Capitoline Hill was in a poor state. Only a single nominal Senator remained. Both palazzi were run-down, the square in front of them was earthen, and the paths up to the hill were steep and muddy. Although a few statues and antique art pieces, gifts to the Roman people by Sixtus IV and his successors, stood in the piazza and in the courtyards of the palazzi, they alone could not bring the glory of ancient Rome back to the Capitoline.
Description:
Etching of the Campidoglio by Etienne Duperac, 1569
Michelangelo’s Campidoglio is approachable from five staircases, four at the piazza’s corners and one at the front. The central stairway, also called the cordonata, is a long, shallow set of steps approaching the Capitoline Hill from the direction of the Vatican. Michelangelo’s wide stairway allowed horsemen to ride all the way to the top. The gentle slope also prevents visitors from rapidly racing to the top; instead, they must gradually process upward and allow the Campidoglio to appear in front of them. In addition, the cordonata’s shallowness contrasts sharply with the steepness of the adjacent stairs rising up to the church of Santa Maria in Aracoeli: climbing to civic heights is relatively easier than climbing to spiritual heights. At the foot of the cordonata is a pair of lions in black granite symbolizing power and justice, carved in Egypt in the fourth or third century B.C. and moved to Rome in the first century A.D.
Along the top of the cordonata runs a balustrade that affirms the Campidoglio’s role as a stage looking out onto Rome and toward the Vatican. The cordonata is capped with two large statues of Castor and Pollux (who according to legend protected Rome in the 5th century BC) with horses that were found in 1561and pieced back together. Originally, as in Duperac’s etching, Michelangelo may have intended a pair of statues called the Horsetamers to stand in this spot. The Horsetamers were believed to represent Alexander the Great and would have referenced the Pope (whose given name was Alessandro), but they were not removed from the Quirinal Baths. On either side of Castor and Pollux are the Trophies of Marius, displaying captured armor and weapons that suggest ancient Roman glory. Beyond these are two statues of Constantine and his son Constantine II, again implying Paul III’s continuity with the emperors of the Roman Empire.
The square of the Campidoglio is bounded on three sides by buildings: the Palazzo Senatorio, the Palazzo dei Conservatori, and the Palazzo Nuovo. All three buildings feature façades redesigned by Michelangelo and consequently have stylistic consistency, combining classical and medieval ideas into an innovative Renaissance style. Michelangelo was not allowed to deconstruct the buildings, and renovation took many years as builders contended with the continuous use of the palazzi. The façades of the Palazzo dei Conservatori and the Palazzo Nuovo are identical and are defined by conflicting vertical and horizontal forces in the post-and-lintel construction. The two levels of each palazzo are unified through colossal Corinthian pilasters (square columns built into the walls) that span the height of the building; these pilasters, along with the parts of the columns surrounding them disguised with horizontal decorations, bear the weight of the cornice (projecting ledge) at the top. The lower entablature (the horizontal structure between the ground and first stories) is supported by the ionic columns of the ground floor. Unusually, there are no statues on the building below the cornice; the focus is instead on the interplay of light and shadow created through the various depths of the columns, porticoes, and pilasters. The cornices along the top of the palaces, however, are adorned with statues of athletes, rulers, and ancient gods.
Although the Palazzo dei Conservatori was finished by 1576, the Palazzo Nuovo, with an identical façade to the Palazzo dei Conservatori, was not built until the seventeenth century. Michelangelo designed the Palazzo Nuovo as a purely aesthetic building: it served as a mirror for the Palazzo dei Conservatori, blocked the view of the Santa Maria in Aracoeli church, and had no practical purpose. As a result, its construction was of low priority in a time when funds were scarce. Today, both palazzi serve as museums primarily housing ancient works of art, including the huge head and hand of Constantine and the famous Capitoline She-Wolf bronze statue.
Palazzo Senatorio
The Palazzo Senatorio, at three stories, is taller than the two flanking palazzi, but it is stylistically similar to them. It appears to be only two stories tall because the lowest story is hidden by a double staircase, and the top two stories are unified by colossal Corinthian pilasters like those on the other two palazzi. Michelangelo planned to construct the façade out of travertine, a local stone, but this was changed to sandstone and tufa after his death. The double-aisled staircase was a relatively new innovation at this time. Michelangelo borrowed the idea from his own Medici Library and Donato Bramante’s staircase in the Cortile del Belvedere, and it provides access to the piano nobile, or main first story of the building. The statues on either side of the staircase represent rivers: on the left is the Nile, accompanied by a sphinx, and on the right is the Tiber, accompanied by a wolf with twins. Both statues were from the Baths of Constantine. They had been moved to the Capitoline Hill previously and placed in front of the Palazzo dei Conservatori. Michelangelo originally intended a statue of Jupiter to stand in the central niche of the staircase as a reference to the Temple of Jupiter that once stood on the Capitoline Hill, but it was never installed. Instead, a statue of Roma stands beneath a baldachin (canopy), with a body of red porphyry and a head of white marble.
Engraving of Michelangelo’s Capitoline Hill project, 1567
Several aspects of the Campidoglio are unusual and innovative, departing from the classically “perfect” shapes of the square and the circle. The piazza is not square or even rectangular: it is a trapezoid, expanding outward toward the Palazzo Senatorio to create a reverse-perspective effect (making the far palazzo seem larger). The trapezoid was necessitated by the preexisting 80-degree angle between the Palazzo Senatorio and Palazzo dei Conservatori. Rather than try to force the Campidoglio into a square, Michelangelo embraced this abnormality. The oval paving on the ground contrasts harmoniously with the trapezoidal space. Like the trapezoid, it is an “imperfect” shape, but it is able to emphasize the main axis of the Campidoglio (along the Vatican–Palazzo Senatorio direction) in a way that a circle could not. The oval is convex: three sets of steps descend slightly around its edge, and the oval rises to a peak at the statue of Marcus Aurelius. Through the curving patterns on the ground and multiple sets of steps, the oval demands that visitors involve themselves in the architecture by choosing a specific path. Currently, the oval is paved with a twelve-pointed star design, which was not implemented until Mussolini’s restoration of Rome in 1940. The papacy may have considered the star to be too reminiscent of the zodiac, and consequently too pagan, for a space glorifying papal power.
Statue of Marcus Aurelius
Finally, the entire square is centered on the statue of Marcus Aurelius, and in many respects acts as a stage for the statue as it looks out onto Rome in the direction of the Vatican. The sculpture is the only remaining equestrian bronze from antiquity: for much of its history, it was believed to depict Constantine, the first Christian emperor, and so it was spared from destruction. At the time of the Campidoglio’s redesign, the rider had been identified as Marcus Aurelius, although not definitively – the plaque on the statue’s base refers to it as Emperor Antoninus Pius. As Marcus Aurelius, the statue represents the stability of the era of Pax Romana. It is relatively simple: the rider is not armored, his hand is outstretched in greeting or blessing, and his face is calm. Michelangelo’s oval base is relatively low compared to the height of the statue to emphasize the statue’s size, and it also echoes the oval design on the ground. Although the current statue in the square is a replica, the original is housed in the Capitoline Museum.
Function:
The Campidoglio symbolizes the golden age of ancient triumphs; its restoration and renovation signals to all visitors, whether visiting dignitaries and rulers or common Romans, a return of the glory of the Republic and the Empire. In ancient times, the top of the Capitoline Hill was oriented toward the Roman Forum at its base. However, Michelangelo’s Campidoglio faces toward the Vatican, representing the shift in power from the Roman people in the Forum to the Church in the Vatican. The baldachin over the statue of Roma is reminiscent of altar canopies and symbolizes Christian authority that balances the imperial power represented by Roma, holding a globe. On the other hand, the primacy of the two statues of the Nile and the Tiber surrounding the statue of Roma emphasize Rome’s political role in the world and its cosmopolitan status, while the mounded oval design of the square refers to Rome as the caput mundi or political center of the world. According to Roman tradition, the center of the world moved from Delphi to Rome with the ascension of Roman power, and Paul III wished to continue the tradition of Roman primacy. The statues of gods and rulers along the cornices of the three palazzi look down upon visitors, emphasizing the glory and long history of this civic center.
The duality of the Campidoglio as both a secular and religious monument is affirmed by the inscriptions on the Palazzo dei Conservatori. One inscription claims that the square imitates “its ancestors in spirit and deed…the year 2320 after the founding of the city,” while the other refers to “Jesus Christ” caring for Romans “in the year of our salvation 1568” (Ackerman 67). Similarly, the statue of Marcus Aurelius emphasizes both the religious and secular power of the pope. Marcus Aurelius embodies authority and government – the power of old Rome – but also Christian authority, since for much of the statue’s history it was believed to depict the first Christian emperor. In addition, Pope Paul III was replacing the old Capitoline sculpture representing civic justice – a lion attacking a horse – with the Marcus Aurelius statue that had been associated with papal justice at the Lateran.
Paul III’s Goals:
View of Campidoglio, c. 1559-61, from the Louvre, Paris
At the beginning of the 16th century, Rome was not the grand city that it had once been during the Republic and the Empire. Vestiges of its heroic past were apparent, but ruins were constantly plundered for raw materials. Buildings were dilapidated and streets were narrow. A succession of popes, including Sixtus IV, Julius II, and Leo X, initiated restoration and construction projects to beautify the city’s streets, palaces, squares, and churches. However, Rome experienced stagnation and retrogression during the reign of Clement VII: the 1527 Sack of Rome by the imperial army marked a low point in Roman power, prosperity, and culture. Paul III, succeeding Clement VII, was determined to restore the respectability of Rome and began a renovatio urbis to bring the city into a new golden age. By ordering the redesign of the Capitoline Hill, he ensured that the civic face of Rome was presentable.
Several other factors influenced Paul III’s decision to renovate the Campidoglio. Emperor Charles V was due to visit Rome in 1538 on his victorious return from war with the Turks, and the pope wished to give the emperor a welcome that would at once pay homage to Charles V’s military success and impress upon him the power of the papacy. Undoubtedly Paul III wished to ensure that a disaster like the 1527 Sack of Rome would not happen again. However, the emperor arrived two years early in 1536, and although his reception was grand, he was unable to ascend the Capitoline Hill as the victorious generals did in ancient times due to muddy, inaccessible footpaths. This embarrassment made the renovation of the Campidoglio a necessity to restore Rome’s glory in the eyes of the world. Finally, during his pontificate Paul III built a palace on the Capitoline Hill overlooking the Campidoglio. He almost certainly wanted to improve the view so as not to include a muddy, dilapidated square.
Conclusion:
Modern visitors to the Campidoglio exclaim over Michelangelo’s innovatively harmonious architectural ideas, with good reason. However, widespread appreciation did not commence until the twentieth century. In the first few centuries after its construction, critics denigrated rather than praised the square. Henry James wrote in 1873 that the Capitoline Hill was an “unfailing disappointment” and that Michelangelo’s design was “meagre” (James 126). Part of the scorn can be attributed to the novelty of Michelangelo’s work and to deep respect for the perfection of the classical world. Eventually, tastes and ideas changed, and the Campidoglio is now respected as one of Rome’s most beautiful public places.
The Campidoglio design, with its focus on movement (horizontally, vertically, and curvilinearly) and light contrasts, helped to bridge the gap between the Renaissance and the Baroque periods. Michelangelo was a humanist, and he believed that architecture should mirror the human body not just in its perfect proportions but also in its symmetry and movement. Instead of concentrating on space, he emphasized the mass and immutability of the buildings. His architectural style was widely imitated in the following centuries. The radial design along a central axis became popular in town planning, especially in France. The reverse-perspective trapezoid and the oval both became parts of Bernini’s design of St. Peter’s Square. The double-ramped staircase, the concept of civic space organized around a central monument (again, St. Peter’s Square), and a U-shaped construction emphasizing a central building all gained increasing popularity in the Baroque period. Although Michelangelo evolved his designs as he worked and subsequent architects altered his work, the Campidoglio nevertheless stands as a paragon of civic planning in the Renaissance and Baroque.
Reflection:
The first time I visited the Campidoglio I saw two couples getting married near Marcus Aurelius and the steps of the Palazzo Senatorio. I was suddenly struck by the long and vibrant history of this place. For over 2500 years, the Capitoline Hill has represented religious and civic authority, and to this day it continues to be used by common Romans. I can’t help but compare that legacy to America’s paltry 500 year history. Michelangelo’s design is likewise timeless. While some buildings, such as the Farnese Palace, may seem blocky and imposing by today’s standards, the façades of the Capitoline palazzi seem elegant and beautiful to this day. I was astonished to find that the twelve-pointed star paving had been ignored until the twentieth century; the star complements and completes the whole beautifully. And although the towering Victor Emmanuel Monument is fairly ugly and imposing, the Campidoglio manages to feel comfortable, gorgeous, and permanent, as though it will continue to impress Romans for all time.
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As a foreigner, my views of Rome and Istanbul are tinged with preconceptions. But for me, the treatments of the cities' great religious buildings reveal a profound split in cultures. Rome is a living embodiment of past and present magnificence, and its monumental architecture glorifies God and the Popes. Istanbul is a forward-looking city that simultaneously adheres to a paradigm of close communities, and the garden courtyards mirror that. Each is unique, and I'm immensely glad that I had the opportunity to visit them both.
